Analyse how national & local guidelines Essay

National legislation and guidance influence the development of local policies and procedures that affect every day work with children and young people. Policies must cover the protection of all children and young people under the age of 18 and the content of the policy must be reviewed annually. The LSCB (Local safeguarding children board) is responsible for ensuring that all agencies and departments that work with children and young people in the Borough, work in unity to support the welfare and safety of children in that area. To ensure that work is carried out in an effective manner the LSCB coordinate the work of local agencies to provide a more optimistic outcome in regards to children’s safeguarding. Red bridge works in line with the Every Child Matters program which states that each child has a right to: Be healthy Stay safe Enjoy and achieve Make a positive contribution Achieve economic well being Within childcare practice we must be aware that we have a clear and defined role in relation to child protection. Professionals working with children/young people i.e. teaching assistants, volunteers, outside agencies are DBS checked (Disclosure & barring service) previously known as CRB checks. Adults working with children should also be fully trained in safeguarding children by a nominated safeguarding adviser and have the opportunity to receive training in order to develop their understanding of the signs and indicators of abuse or neglect, this training is offered every 3 years. In order for child protection to work effectively we must ensure we have good inter relationships with other agencies and good cooperation from professionals that are competent in responding to child protection situations. If a child discloses information that concerns his/her welfare; we must make a record of exactly what the child has said in their words and report it to a safeguarding officer, ensuring that these records are kept confidentially and separated from pupils records. Guidance on confidentiality and sharing; the line manager/head teacher or safeguarding officer will only disclose personal information concerning a child to other members of staff on a need to know basis, however all staff must be aware that they have a responsibility to share information with other agencies. If a child or young person does disclose information to a member of staff and ask that that information remains ‘a secret’, it is vital that the member of staff tells the child/young person sensitively that they have a duty to transfer information to the appropriate agencies in order for other children to be safeguarded. Risk assessments are crucial to any setting and should be carried out regularly to ensure that there is no safeguarding threats to the children.

Native American Indians Then and Now Essay

Native American Indians Native American Indians have not changed much in hundreds of years. The Natives still have the same belief as they did from the beginning of time. They are still forced to live on reserved lands that do not seem livable and are in worse conditions now than ever before. Even though people think due to casinos that the American Indians have it made, the Natives are still being mistreated, many tribes are well below poverty levels, highest in death rates, have the most number of preventable diseases, the highest of teen suicide than anywhere in the Nation. Native American Indians traditions go back to the beginning of time. The Native religion is more about sacred and ceremonies. The Native people do not have a word for religion it is more a way of life to them than a religion. According to one researcher, â€Å"There is not one Native tradition to represent Native religion. Just as there are numerous Christian beliefs the Native people have many different beliefs. The Native ceremonies are so similar that it is impossible to discuss them as one† (Burbar, and Vernon 2006) The Natives have always been connected to the lands. Most of their ceremonies and sacred objects come from the lands and has everything to do with how they feel about them. Native people do not believe they can own the lands that people are merely caretakers of it. The Native believe that the land is a gift from the Creator, put here to give them tools for survival. They believe if they take something from the land that they must give thanks for the gift given. They do this by offering sacred herbs, prayer, and dance. Native American Indians The Native people give each member roles to keep the villages running smoothly. The Native men hunt and protect the village, while the women gather fruits, berries, and keep the camps, the children gathered wood, help clean hides, look after the younger children and clean the camps. One researcher studies tells stories of how some tribes are at certain times in the tribal life. â€Å"On the Northwest coast, young women were taught that the wives of Makah whale hunters must very still in bed while their husbands hunted, since their movement influenced the whale’s behaviors. In a Navajo story Black God had all animals penned up until his wife opened the gate. The animals escaped and thereafter had to be hunted, (Kidwell, 1998). All of this became threatened with the arrival of foreigners. With the foreigners coming and bringing there Christian beliefs the Native traditions were going to be challenged. With the start of the White Mans government the Natives faced having several ceremonial rights taken away for hundreds of years. The Natives were stopped from worshiping in manners they were accustomed. The Natives were forced to worship the Christian belief and if they refused they were put to death or imprisoned. Many of the Native traditional ceremonies were stopped completely. Two of those rights at this time were the Ghost Dance, and the Sun dance. The Natives found ways around this; they would go to places they knew white men would not to have ceremonies that had been band. Due to so many of the Native rights being taken away the Natives formed a group called â€Å"American Indian Movement† (AIM). AIM in the early years was called â€Å"Indian wars†. After fighting the government for several years and fighting for their right to religious freedom President Jimmy Carter signed the American Indian Religious freedom Act, Native American Indians (AIRFA). Burke, and Vernon, 2006), AIRFA was one of the very few times when congress gave the Natives the legislative right to worship in the manner he or she feels fit. (Burke, and Vernon, 2006). After a few more decades of being mistreated and having rights taken and treaties broken Aim reformed again. AIM’s early and best known leaders, Russell Means, Dennis Banks, Clyde and Vernon Bellecourt, these Native men formed together to fight for the rights of all indigenous peoples across the world. According to one research study, the â€Å"Trail of Broken Treaties† was â€Å"AIM’s first national pretest event of the 1970’s. AIM’s best-known and controversial protest action began February 1973 in Wounded Knee, South Dakota, a small town in Pine Ridge Reservation†, (Encyclopedia Race and Racism p. 82) better known now as the â€Å"Siege at Wounded Knee†. The siege lasted 71 days and when it was over several of the AIM members were arrested for causing riots. Many of the AIM leaders spent years in legislation, exile, or prison. One of the best known cases is that of Leonard Peltier. Peltier was imprisoned for killing two FBI agents. Several years later it was proven that Peltier did not receive a fare trial. Much of the evidence was not allowed in court and was suppressed from the jurors. After decades of trying to get Peltier freed from prison he was finally deemed the only American political prisoner in 1984. Peltier is still in prison to this day and the Natives are still fighting for his release. A more resent less known case August 22, 2008 of the Natives not receiving justice is the case of Robert Whirlwind Horse 23 and Calonnie Randall 26. These two Natives was struck and killed by a drunk driver Timothy Hotz while walking on a reservation road. This was Hotz Native American Indians fourth DUI, one year prior Hotz had his third DUI. After striking the Natives Hotz continued to drive home without stopping. The next morning Hotz noticed hair on his bumper and turned him self in to authorities. Mr. Hotz received 51 months for killing the Native men. This infuriated the Natives once again. (Means, Russell, Republic of Lakota 2009, April 22). Another case of a young native boy went to the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) and was upset at the justice received over Hotz actions and was outraged. He shot one bullet into the radiator of the BIA agent’s car and received 20 years imprisonment. The Natives are still being forced to live on reservations. The reservations are in such horrendous conditions almost all the reservations are in worse conditions than most third world countries, (Republic of the Lakotah, conditions); According to one Native â€Å"It is like living in Hattie’s†,(Means Russell). The Pine Ridge Reservation in South Dakota is one such reservation. â€Å"The United States Government has not upheld many of it promises to the Lakotah people and the results to this is astonishing†, (Means, Russell, Republic of the Lakotah). Due to the conditions the Lakotah people are forced to live in has caused them to have the highest death rates than anywhere else in the Nation. Reservations across the country are well below the poverty level. (Figure 3 below) The average life span of a Lakotah Male is 44 years. (Figure 1 below) The Lakotah people have the most preventable diseases than anywhere in the nation. Much of the disease could be stopped if the government would allow the Natives have vaccines and medications. The teen suicide rates are the highest of anywhere in the nation.

Character Analysis of King Lear

The protagonist of the drama, Lia King, is truly a tragic person. Being driven by greed and arrogance, he is known for his stubbornness and temper, and he often acts with emotions and whims. He believes the appearance is higher than reality. He wishes to be treated as a king and enjoys the title, but he does not want to fulfill the king's duty to manage the interests of his subject. Likewise, his test for his daughter shows that he respects the advertisement of love rather than real love. The word Wang Leer represents an allegorical transformation from illiteracy to medieval and to the Renaissance. To explain this point, King Lear has to be seen as a Renaissance theater, it happened in the former imaginary pagan period. (Lawrence, God, 156) As a pagan king, Lear was seen as shame culture in Roman gods and their fields. - Richard Wright's Native Son is a novel that was born in the 1930s, where race discrimination was most prominent. Richard Wright focused on abusive and ugly stereotyp es that mark African Americans. The bigger Thomas, the hero is a young man who fulfills his family's expectations and has the problem of trying to keep his reputation to his neighbors. In the central character of Lear King, Lear's tragedy began at the beginning of the script, so King Lear himself experienced the process of self-enlightenment. The theme developed around this role is self-recognition, the repeated image depicting the vision of these themes of Shake Spear and blindness, identity and consciousness, and various literary techniques are images, symbols and satire . In the first performance, the audience introduced Leah to a man of unscrupulous vanity that could not see the truth and fidelity of Codelia's love. Love, and I feel that she can not express in words - I can not put my heart in my mouth. Leah is dishonest of Goneril and Regan's two daughters, dishonest I can not see hypocrisy.

The Problem of Catch-Up in Developing Countries at the Level of the Essay

The Problem of Catch-Up in Developing Countries at the Level of the Nike In Relation To a Firm Level - Essay Example According to the research findings, the latter half of the 20th Century saw dramatic growth in industrial production and in the mass consumption in developing nations. The growth of industrial output in countries like China and India during this period was robust and to some extent, the process of catching-up also began in the technological field. The process is thus called "imitation to innovation" approach. This took place for the most part in traditional industries such as textiles and clothing and the earlier product generations of the machine tool and consumer electronics industries. Globalization has become increasingly important in determining the rate of economic growth, with estimations that emerging markets will account for a larger piece of the world economy by 2020. Studies suggest that the shift of labor-intensive production processes from regions like Western Europe to lower-cost economies will continue. In fact, it was during the 1980s that development theorists and pr actitioners began to re-conceptualize the catching up process, from one based primarily on the transfer of technology to one of learning to produce quality products efficiently. Evidence for the success of such a strategy was found in the growth of manufactured exports, notably from the Asian tigers. The indigenous manufacturing capabilities of such low-cost economies too are on an upward journey. These countries had progressively climbed the ladder in traditional industries such as textiles and clothing. This trend kept going even in consumer electronics, from low-cost assemblers of finished products to producers of higher value-added products, original equipment manufacturer (OEM) and, in a couple of cases, own brand manufacturers who had mastered the process from product conceptualization to the market.

Organizational Innovation and Change - Critical Thinking Mod 6 - Role Essay

Organizational Innovation and Change - Critical Thinking Mod 6 - Role of Vision at Mentor Graphics - Essay Example an organization and is able to achieve intrepid changes; it encourages assurance and trust and has emotional appeal to the elementary human requirements and desire. That is why it is important for an organization and the vision fail may cause organization failure thus must be formulated vigilantly and should be changed very cautiously as per requirement. At Mentor graphics vision was used as per requirement, the very first vision â€Å"Built something that people will buy† was not well thought and the others did not cover the actual need but were formulated as needed even forcefully somehow. According to Lussier and Achua (2009) a vision should be motivating; it should not only be economic but must express organization’s philosophy so that the customers may develop a personal connection with the organization. It actually weakened the company because right from the start the company was not clear about its future. Vision generation is similar to picture generation of excellence in business. Therefore, it cannot be successful unless future consideration is there. Whereas all the visions formulated by the company were based on the present situation of the organization. Vision is supposed to be dealt as a way of irrefutable situations (Scott, 1993). There is not only one but many visions formed by the company each falling in the failure category of different kind. In the broader terms the visions made were mostly inadequate. That means there walk was different from the talk, they were irrelevant, disconnected and little participating. Vision should deal with the better future and a different situation instead of following the present problem. The vision should have the relevant content, what is included in the vision should be given importance. The way it is used is the other issue. The context of the vision content should relate to each other. The way vision was introduced and changed at the company was not focusing on the upcoming growth but what was analyzed

Organizational Forms Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Organizational Forms - Essay Example The major characteristics of sole proprietorship are as follows: Liability: Liability is the biggest disadvantage in sole proprietorship organizational form. In sole proprietorships, if the business suffers huge amount of dues which cannot be recovered from revenue, the owner will be personally liable for paying the entire amount. On the flip side, if proprietor possesses unpaid dues, the creditors can even realize those from the business assets (McGuire, Woods & McLean, n.d.). Income tax: Sole proprietorship business is a taxable unit. In this business form, there is little opportunity for tax planning, as the owner is completely liable to pay all the taxes derived through income (McGuire, Woods & McLean, n.d.). Longevity or continuity of the organization: The longevity of sole proprietorship business depends largely on the existence of its owner (Beatty, Samuelson & Bredeson, 2012). Control: In sole proprietorship, the business owner has the entire control over the resources and bu siness decisions which is a significant advantage of sole proprietorship (AllBusiness, 2007). Profit retention: The other advantage of sole proprietorship business is that it allows the business owner to enjoy complete profit retention (McGuire, Woods & McLean, n.d.). ... p business is quite easy to set-up with minimum capital; however, it significantly depends on the financial ability of the proprietor (McGuire, Woods & McLean, n.d.). General Partnership General partnership is the second type of organizational form which denotes business relationship between individuals forming independent organization through mutual contracts. Liability: Liability is an advantage in general partnership because each business associates are mutually and individually responsible for every facet of the business including profit/loss or major decisions (McGuire, Woods & McLean, n.d.). Income taxes: Similar to sole proprietorship, general partnership organizational form has a single level of taxation. This type of business does not fall under the taxable unit, rather it is considered as a tax reporting unit (McGuire, Woods & McLean, n.d.). Longevity or continuity of the organization: Longevity is a significant disadvantage of general partnership. There is supposed to be s pecific time duration for the term of general partnership. The longevity of general partnership depends on the contract. Whenever a partner is discharged from the contract, the other existing partners can take over the vacant place or they can even decide to wind-up the complete business (McGuire, Woods & McLean, n.d.). Control: Each business associates possess equal level of control on business decisions (McGuire, Woods & McLean, n.d.). Profit retention: Business associates share the gross profits in between themselves and are taxed independently (McGuire, Woods & McLean, n.d.). Location: The taxation in general partnership relies on the principal regulations location where revenue has been generated (Beatty, Samuelson & Bredeson, 2012). Convenience or burden: A common burden in general

Observational Studies Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Observational Studies - Essay Example Even research that would seem, from a contemporary perspective, to be ideally suited as an observational study, like the characterization done in the 1920's by Arnold Gesell of the normal course of human development in the first 6 years of life, was carried out in a laboratory setting and followed stringent rules (Naturalistic results, 2004). An observational study (also called an epidemiological or population study), therefore is a research method that looks at large populations with an aim to find trends. It is usually retrospective that is, it examines what has happened in the past. For example, participants may fill out surveys or questionnaires on what they recall about particular behaviors, such as what foods they ate or what nutritional supplements they took in past years. Researchers simply look at what is already going on. Such research methods are often used to find connections between what people eat and the development of different diseases (Observational study, 2006). Observational studies include several observation methods such as: naturalistic observation, analog observation, self observation, and narrative observation. Naturalistic observation occurs when a researcher does observations in a naturally occurring situation, without having to get involved. In using the naturalistic observations method, the researcher makes no effort to control or change the situation. The research task is simply to make a comprehensive record of the proceedings that occur and of visible relationships between events. The main challenge in conducting naturalistic observation is to arrange the data collection so that the observer has a clear view of what occurs, but is not so prominent or noticeable that they become an object of interest or concern to participants (Naturalistic observation, n.d.). Examples of naturalistic observations without intervention include the early work of Jane Goodall on chimpanzees and of Dian Fossey on mountain gorillas as well as Timothy Perper's studies of flirting behavior in bars. Examples of naturalistic observation with intervention include participant observation studies in which a rese archer becomes part of a group in order to describe what members of the group do (Naturalistic research, 2004). Analogue observations Analogue observation involves the measurement of a client's obvious behavior in an artificial setting that is analogous to settings that the client is expected to encounter in his natural surroundings. The goal of analogue behavioral observation is to derive reliable estimates of the client's behavior in a current or future natural environment. The disadvantage of Analogue behavioral observation is that its instruments are often developed with insufficient attention to their psychometric properties, especially content weight. Although analogue behavioral observation instruments can be susceptible to change, their validity can corrode as time passes and is affected by various sources of discrepancy. However, analogue behavioral observation assessment is especially useful in detecting significant functional relations in clinical assessment (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2005 APA, all rights reserved;

Personal Development and Careers Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words - 2

Personal Development and Careers - Essay Example Acquiring knowledge is indeed an important part of the learning process because this satisfies the need to assume more in line with the changing needs of the time. The behavioral changes therefore mean that the learning element has been incorporated in a due way. If the learning quarters are not being documented for in a proper way, there would be serious apprehensions within the related ranks, and it is quite possible that the behaviors within the business dynamics are affected in a negative way. The learning theory suggests how the learning process comes about, and how this has been manifested for time and again through different activities and tasks. Learning is therefore a process that will manifest success in its own form towards the individuals who hold it in an important way. The organizations of today are banking on the success aspects that are related with the learning which is being attained. What is even more significant here is the fact that learning is something that sha ll bring about the best resources under the aegis of knowledge acquisition in the best and most apt way possible. The changing business times have therefore signified how essential it is to make use of the learning regimes, and what their incorporation within the employees’ domains would mean towards their professional ends. The experience that these employees gain through experience is also an element that needs to be appreciated under different circumstances and situations within an organization. It is correctly said that organizations which are not ready to incorporate learning within their respective zones are actually undertaking huge risks, which are of magnanimous proportions. Thus what is really required here is a vision to bring in learning so that it could inculcate a sense of belongingness within the employees, and be appreciated for what they are doing within the organizations and more so in the future as well (Court, 2001). The learning theory gets implemented wi thin an organization when there is a dire need to set things in a manner which shall bring in success at the end of the day, not only for the employees but also for the sake of the organizations in the long run. However this learning must be initiated by the organizations so that the employees can get better acquainted to the changing needs and dimensions of the time. As far as my learning mechanisms are concerned, I have wholly and solely set my eyes on finding out about the learning aspects and differential elements that remains within its midst. This has made me realize where I am going wrong and what I need to do in order to get myself back on my feet whenever I am down. This indeed is a proactive exercise that I have set for my own self because this shall bring in a great amount of learning on my part and make me feel head and shoulders above the other employees in the organization. I believe that the learning aspects must come about in an automated way because this means so mu ch for employees like me who want to move up the ladder of success through hard work, commitment and complete devotion towards work tasks, activities and processes in the organization. Therefore my approach towards learning is such that it allows me to move ahead with the new entities that are shaping up within the organization and which shall bolster my growth and development over a consistent

Political and Economic Factors, than influence ICT Developments in Assignment

Political and Economic Factors, than influence ICT Developments in Greece - Assignment Example This paper presents a brief informative analysis of the current level of ICT utilization in Greece economy. The economy of the world exudes deep influences from developments in ICT. This is evident as indicated by the fact that every contemporary business in the world focuses on the integration if ICT in order to obtain some of the benefits that they offer. For the success of e-commerce in Greece, it would be necessary for the government to develop policies that encourages the implementation of ICT through the adaptation of the technological applications into the various activities. The Greek economy has a lot of microenterprises and SMEs, which consider ICT as unnecessary. The reason for the exclusion of ICT by the enterprises is that the immediate benefits of the integration might seemingly not outweigh the investments in the ICT infrastructure. In order for the government to get involved in the development of a suitable framework for the achievement of economic growth, it decided to operate within the framework of the European Union, which has some programs specifically for enterprises. The government ensures that it takes advantage of ICT initiatives through training the members of staff, which ensures an indisputable acquisition of ICT benefits to the economy. The disadvantage of this is that funding for the training programs is in adequate The political factors that have an influence on the development of ICT in the Greek market are somehow related to the economic factors.

Unit 5 Discussion Domestic Violence Research Paper

Unit 5 Discussion Domestic Violence - Research Paper Example arning theory which states that contextual and situational factors such as stress, individual-couple characteristics, aggressive gait and family violence aid family violence. Biopsychological theory ties together biological factors such as alcoholism and testosterone levels and psychosocial factors such as stress to understand family violence. There is also the feminist theory which asserts that family violence is a culmination and manifestation of the degradation of women. The chosen topic is important in the course because it helps organisations and those in the human resources management (HRM) to regard comprehensively, the magnitude of family violence. The same will also help organisations and HRM to appreciate the limits which they must keep to as they attempt to mitigate the effects of family violence at the workplace. Just as Gosselin (2009) observes, when an organisation fails to determine boundaries in its quest to alleviate the effects of domestic violence as a way of promoting employee welfare, it oversteps its mandate and runs the risk of unduly heightening its operational

Hamlet Essay Example for Free

Hamlet Essay Act 1- Scene 1 The first entrance of the ghost is made impressive because Marcellus and Bernardo only told Horatio about them seeing the ghost in the two nights before during their watch. Horatio did not believe them â€Å"Horatio says ‘tis but our fantasy and will not let belief take hold of him touching this sight twice seen of us;† (1.1.23-25) What makes the siting of the ghost so important is that the two guard believe it to be the ghost of the dead King Hamlet. When the ghost appears and Horatio asks it to speak the ghost suddenly disappears. In its second exit the ghost returns and again they ask it to speak but as it spreads its arms the cockcrows and the ghost disappears yet again not saying anything. A superstition that is connected with the ghost is that the guards believe that it is the ghost of the dead King that is trying to warn them of some impending misfortune for Denmark. Act 1 – Scene 2 The new King Claudius attempts to justify his marriage to the Queen by giving a speech to his courtiers, explaining his recent marriage to Queen, his brother’s widow and the mother of Prince Hamlet. Claudius says that he mourns his brother but has chosen to balance Denmark’s mourning with the delight of his marriage. â€Å"With mirth in funeral, and dirge in marriage, in equal scale weighing delight and dole, taken to wife.† (1.2.12-14) In his soliloquy Hamlet expresses that he wishes he could die. He wishes that God had not made suicide a sin. He is also thinking about how it is possible for his mother to have move on after two short month that his father has been gone. When the line â€Å"Frailty, thy name is woman† (1.3.146) is spoken he is referring of his mother because just two months ago his father and her husband died and now she has just moved on to his fathers brother because she is weak and will not make it on her own or w ithout a husband and he finds that shaming. Act 1- Scene 3 1.Laertes believes that Hamlets relationship with Ophelia is not true, because someone of his ranking can not love someone like Ophelia because he is too far above her to love her honourably. Since Hamlet is not only responsible for his feelings but also the role that he will one day play as King Laertes believe that it will be impossible for Hamlet to ever marry Ophelia. Before he leaves he tell her to make sure she does not fall in love with him. â€Å"Fear it, Ophelia, fear it, my dear sister, and keep you in the rear of your affections, out of the shot and danger of desire† (1.3.33-35) 2.Polonius has the same opinion of Laertes, and forbids Ophelia to associate with Hamlet anymore. He tells her that Hamlet has deceived her in swearing his love, and that she should see through his false vows â€Å"Affection pooh! You speak like a green girl, unsifted in such perilous circumstances. Do you believe his tenders, as you call them?† (1.3.101-03) Act 1- Scene 4 †¢Horatio, Marcellus, and Hamlet are keeping watch outside the class, while Hamlet tells the two men that the King has been spending his night drinking alcohol and how he believe that he is tarnishing the Danish people. †¢The ghost appears and calls out to Hamlet to follow him. †¢Even though Horatio and Marcellus tell him not to go and consider that the ghost could harm him Hamlet decides to follow the ghost anyways †¢Hamlet does not care if his life is in danger and follow the ghost off into the darkness †¢Horatio believes that Hamlet is now in the hands of God but Marcellus thinks that they should follow Hamlet and try to protect him, so the two set off after Hamlet and the ghost Act 1- Scene 5 In this scene King Hamlet reveals to his son that his death was cause by foul play and it was a murder. â€Å"Murder most foul, as in the best it is, but this most foul, strange and unnatural.† (1.5.27-28) The King then tells Hamlet that is was his very own brother that killed him. Now Hamlet, hear. Tis given out that, sleeping in my orchard, a serpent stung me. So the whole ear of Denmark is by a forged process of my death rankly abused. But know, thou noble youth, the serpent that did sting thy father’s life now wears his crown. (1.5.34-39 The ghost of the King tells Hamlet to â€Å"leave her to heaven† (1.5.86) which means he does not want Hamlet to do anything to his mother because the King realizes that she has been tainted by Claudius.

Crime Fiction Notes Essay Example for Free

Crime Fiction Notes Essay Study: read over your essay and familiarise yourself with your wording have discussions Figure out the arguments in your head practise exams don’t just Know the material REALLY UNDERSTAND it The Big Sleep Observation: conventions that are constant throughout generations of crime fiction genre (passion, detachment, love, hope, justice) are a reflection on the timeless and universal human needs conventions that are subverted are a reflection of changing values and context Context: 1950’s post WW2 Economic depression Desire for hope, justice, escapism Theorists: Schwartz: â€Å"crime fiction serves to explicate the dangers and pleasures of life. † There is human emotion with which the audience can empathise Gives the illusion that they have entered the world of crime Miller: â€Å"A rhetorically sound definition of genre must be centred not on the substance or form of discourse, but on the action it is used to accomplish,† manipulate audiences empathy to engage them in the text typical of TRADITIONAL crime fiction GENRE Techniques: (Remember these techniques interchangeably and only use the appropriate ones) Context specific 1. Subvert Context: Desire for hope Convention: film noir subgenre traditionally seek to realistically portray the inescapable broken nature of society – subverted – Happy Ending Observation Theorist: Imperative of genre to allow for subversion to become relevant to socio-economic or political context Chandler, â€Å"the cycles and transformations of genre can be seen as a response to the changing political, social and economic conditions† 2. Context: socio-economic context of 1940’s World War 2 America midst of an economic depression employment was low and consequently crime was on the rise yearning for justice and heroism to correct the broken nature of society Convention: Characterisation of Marlowe as determined and relentless Ironic and self-depreciating dialogue â€Å"I’m just a guy whose paid to do other peoples laundry† embodies disposition of lone ranger Heroic connotations, â€Å"why did you have to keep going?†, â€Å"too many people told me to stop.† Observation and Theorist: Crime fiction gives the audience what it NEEDS 3. Context: 1950’s audience can critique broken society and judge morality of characters Convention: Conforms to traditional structure of c/f: red herrings, witnesses, investigation, unveiling of mystery Lack of narration; no point of view; audience critique characters E.G. Marlowe, womanizer, heavy drinker, blatant disrespect for authority and the law, â€Å"I don’t know what I am going to tell them- but it will be pretty close to the truth† retain a degree of morality, reproach toward reprehensible behaviour, â€Å"my, my, my, so many guns for so few brains.† Reflects ambivalent noir concept that everything good is tainted with evil Observation and theorist: Convoluted plotline makes the audience â€Å"objective viewer† Critique the broken society and the morality of characters Livingston, â€Å"different genres are concerned with different world views†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Universal 1. Conform Context: common timeless human desires transcend context and audience and hence are constant throughout generations of crime fiction Convention: human fascination with romantic love interest foregrounded interaction between ‘hardboiled detective’ Marlowe and ‘femme fatal’ Vivien Rutledge Verbal sparring soaked in double-entendres indicative of sexual tension; â€Å"do you always think you can handle people like trained seals?† â€Å"uh-huh and I usually get away with it too† Theorist: Colette, â€Å"romance pervades oral and written story-telling as far back as can be traced† Anil’s Ghost Observations 1. Post-colonial text; exposure to different culture; challenges Western perspective of crime fiction genre Barthes, â€Å"it is in relation to other texts within a genre rather then in relation to lived experiences that we make sense of certain events within a text.† Cohen, â€Å"Genres are open categories. Each member alters the genre by adding, contradicting or changing constituents, especially those members most closely related to it.† 2. Challenges not only our understanding of the genre, but also our perception of the world around us Berger: â€Å"Never again will a single story be told as though it were only the one†. 3. Crime fiction can be a means of contextual political and philosophical discussion The subjectivity of truth Nihilism and post-modernism Techniques 1. Context: socio-political context 1980’s Sri Lanka multifaceted civil war unimaginable for a western audience – but can relate to universal themes Convention: Mystery as a medium for Anil’s quest for her identity Ambiguous characterisation forces reader to share in her frustration and confusion Refuses to be defined or typecast, religious allusion, â€Å"The return of the prodigal†, â€Å"I am not a prodigal† Symbolised through an aggressive campaign to chose her own name Observation and theorist: international audience relate to a common quest multifaceted nature of identity Ambiguity and struggle within an individual, reflective of wider post modern society 2. Observation, context and theorist: Fister; â€Å"crime fiction deliberately exploits anxiety within the reader through reflecting and magnifying societies fear du jour.† Terror of those living within civil war Convention: explored through specific victims, personalise pain; agonising imagery Gunesena’s crucifixion, â€Å"prized the nails from the tarmac, freeing his hands† fear impregnates every facet of society; personification of Sri Lankan national fear through simile used to warn against the dangers of truth, â€Å"truth is like a flame against a lake of petrol† 3. Observation: aware of the horrendous acts of violence but absent from the actual event never presume to understand the degree of suffering novel seeks to extrapolate sympathy NOT empathy Convention: Subversion: post-modern style, not one single perspective, intrusive narration to explore a variety of characters perspectives. (Berger: â€Å"Never again will a single story be told as though it were only the one†.) Foregrounds the differences; â€Å"the darkest Greek tragedies were innocent compared to what was happening here† compares European mythology with Eastern reality, highlights vast discrepancies between crime fiction Theorist: Texts challenge audience’s worldly perceptions; Cole: â€Å"This can function as a form of social protest and reform†¦ giving crime writers the status symbol of social activists.† More on VALUES

Obesity: History, BMI Classification, Determinants and Effects

Obesity: History, BMI Classification, Determinants and Effects OBESITY Obesity is fast becoming a serious epidemic in the United States due partly to eating habits and physical inactivity amongst Americans. According to the Centre for Disease Control, Seventy-three percent of adults and 43 percent of all children in the United States are overweight or obese. Among African-Americans 20 years and over, more than two-thirds are overweight or obese (Gaines, 2010). Generally, the rate of overweight and obesity are higher for African-American and Hispanic women than Caucasian women, higher in the south and Midwest and increases with age (Ogden et al., 2014; Gregg et al., 2009; Sherry et al., 2010). According to the World Health Organization, body mass index (BMI) of an obese person has a value greater than or equal to thirty. Type 2 diabetes and high blood pressure are two diseases that ultimately affect African Americans and this is predominantly caused by an increase in weight as those extra pounds predisposes a person to these diseases (Gaines, 2010). Obes ity is one of the primary risk factor for heart diseases, diabetes and a number of cancers and these are major causes of death in American today. The health implication of obesity and the complications associated with it is increasingly becoming more detrimental than cigarette smoking and has therefore become one of the major preventable causes of death worldwide. This investigation paper focuses on the brief history of obesity; this will take obesity from its discovery over 2000 years to this present day. An understanding of the BMI classification, aetiological determinants, pathophysiology and health effects is important if obesity prevalence will be curtailed. Furthermore, the socio economic impact of obesity management on the United States economy will be looked into. Finally, its treatment options, prevention and trends of the disease will be discussed. HISTORY OF OBESITY The Ancient Greeks were the first to acknowledge obesity as a health disorder and this was further recognized by the Ancient Egyptians in a similar way. According to Hippocrates, corpulence is not only a disease itself, but the harbinger of other diseases (Haslam & James, 2005). Hippocrates which was the Ancient Greek Father of Western medicine acknowledged obesity in his work and details of various diseases including diabetes was first given by him. Another Indian surgeon Sushruta, also discovered the association between obesity, diabetes and heart diseases and he was the first person to find out the significant signs, symptoms, causes and health implications. In the Ancient days, man always strived for food due to scarcity or famine and this resulted in obesity being regarded as a sign of wealth and good fortune in the middle age. However, all this changed when the scientific society of the 20th century revealed the medical implications of obesity (Caballero B., 2007) With the inception of the industrial revolution, body size and strength of soldiers and workers became pertinent as this was attributed to the military and economic power of Nations (Caballero, 2007). The increase in the average body mass index from underweight to the normal on the BMI charts played an important role in the development of industrialized societies (Caballero, 2007).   Therefore in the 19th century, there was an increase in weight and height generally. However, during the 20th century, the genetic potentials for height was reached and this resulted to weight increasing more than height in this century and thus resulted in the average increase in BMI (Caballero, 2007). In human evolution, for the first time, the number of adults with excess weight exceeded the number of those who were underweight which further led to obesity (Caballero, 2007). The perceptions of the public as regards healthy body weight varied from those regarded as normal in the western society, but this perception was changed in the beginning of the 20th century. There was a reduction in the weight seen as normal since 1920s and this was evident by the 2% increase in average height of the Miss America pageant winners and a 12% decrease in weight between year 1922 and 1999 (Rubinstein & Caballero, 2000). Also, the perception of most people as regards healthy weight has changed, for example in Britain the weight at which people regarded themselves to be overweight was considerably higher in 2007 than in 1999 (Johnson & Wardle, 2008). Obesity is still regarded as an indication of wealth and well-being in many parts of Africa and this has become more widespread since the HIV epidemic began (Haslam & James, 2005). BODY MASS INDEX (BMI) CLASSIFICATION According to the World Health Organization, Body Mass Index (BMI) is a simple index of weight-for-height that is commonly used to classify underweight, normal weight, overweight and obesity in adults. It is defined as the weight in kilograms divided by the square of the height in metres (kg/m2) (W.H.O. 2004). For example, an adult who weighs 60kg and whose height is 1.65m will have a BMI of 22.0. BMI = 60 kg / (1.65 m2) = 60 / 2.72 = 22.04 LEAN BODY MASS Lean Body Mass is a component of body composition, it is calculated by subtracting body fat weight from total body weight. Total body weight is lean plus fat. In equations: LBM = BW − BF Lean Body Mass equals Body Weight minus Body Fat LBM + BF = BW Lean Body Mass plus Body Fat equals Body Weight Lean Body Weight (men) = (1.10 x Weight(kg)) 128 ( Weight2/(100 x Height(m))2) Lean Body Weight (women) = (1.07 x Weight(kg)) 148 ( Weight2/(100 x Height(m))2) Ideal Body Weight (men) = 50 + 2.3 ( Height(in) 60 ) Ideal Body Weight (women) = 45.5 + 2.3 ( Height(in) 60 ) Body Mass Index = Weight(kg) / Height(m)2 The table below further explains the classification of BMI in relation to the weight and height of an individual. Table 1: The International Classification of adult underweight, overweight and obesity according to BMI Source: Adapted from WHO, 1995, WHO, 2000 and WHO 2004. BMI values are age dependent and are the same for both males and females (WHO, 2000). The health risks associated with increasing BMI are many and the interpretation of BMI values in relation to risk may vary for different populations in different geographical locations (WHO, 2004). AETIOLOGY DETERMINANTS OF OBESITY Obesity is a heterogeneous group of conditions with numerous causes, it is not merely a single disorder and it is predominantly expressed phenotypically (Susan A.J, 1997). Obesity is hereditary, but the genetic component does not follow simple Mendelian principles and the effect of the genotype on the aetiology of obesity may be decreased or increased by factors that are non-genetic (Susan A.J, 1997). Several factors determine the body weight, and these are interactions of genetic, environmental and psychosocial factors which are in relation to the amount of energy consumed and the amount of energy expended and the resulting acting through the physiological mediators Table 1: The International Classification of adult underweight, overweight and obesity according to BMI of energy intake and energy expenditure and the resulting equilibrium between both (Susan A.J, 1997). ENDOCRINE AND HYPOTHALAMIC DISORDERS Certain endocrinological disorders may lead to obesity, but this applies to a very small percentage of the total number of cases (Susan A.J, 1997). The endocrinological determinants of obesity have been reviewed recently (Bouchard C., Perusse L., Leblanc C., Tremblay A, & Theriault, 1988). The single disorder that causes obesity in this group is hypothyroidism in which increased weight occurs largely as a result of reduced energy expenditure (Susan A.J, 1997). Other endocrinological factors contributing to obesity include Cushing’s syndrome and disorders of corticosteroid metabolism, where weight gain is typically accompanied by a distinctive prototype of fat deposition in the trunk, sex hormone disorders including hypogonadism in men and ovariectomy in women, insulinoma and growth hormone deficiency (Susan A.J, 1997). The key causes of weight gain in these cases are the amount of energy intake. Certain hypothalamic tumors or damage to the hypothalamic part of the brain as a result of excessive exposure to radiation, infectious agents or head trauma can also lead to obesity with defect in appetite control and hyperphagia (Susan A.J, 1997). A hypothalamic disorder is also believed to be the foundation of a number of congenital abnormalities which could also result in obesity, e.g. Prader-Willi syndrome, which is an abnormality that could be a primary cause of obesity (Susan A.J, 1997). GENETIC INFLUENCE At a population level, the genetic influence of obesity is expressed in terms of heritability (Susan A.J, 1997). This refers to the percentage of the total difference in a character which is attributable to genetic factors (Susan A.J, 1997). The heritability of obesity may be considered either in terms of the total fatness of an individual or the distribution of body fat in an individual (Susan A.J, 1997). Several discoveries have been made over the years regarding the influence of genetics on chronic diseases like cardiovascular disease and obesity (R. C. Whitaker, J.A. Wright, M.S. Pepe, K.D. Seidel, &W.H. Dietz., 1997). Recent reports indicate that at least 32 genes contribute to common forms of obesity. Many of these genes are thought to be related to the development of obesity through the deregulation metabolic hormones in the body (Susan A J, 1997).   The obesity related variant in the fat mass and obesity-associated protein also known as alpha-ketoglutarate-dependent dioxygenase FTO, has aroused interest in pediatrics due to its relationship with increased weight and ponderal index at 2 weeks of age (A. Lopez-Bermejo, C.J. Petry, M. Diaz, et al., 2008). FTO is located on the long arm of the chromosome 16 and is expressed in the brain, specifically the hypothalamic nuclei (Khung E. Rhee et al. 2012). Those who are homogenous for the at-risk allele have been found to be 3kg heavier than those who do not have the allele (T.M. Frayling, N. J. Timpson, M. N. Weedon et al. 2007). This weight gain is likely due to the gene’s involvement in the regulation of energy intake (Khung E. Rhee et al. 2012). According to recent studies, individuals carrying the at-risk allele prefer dense energy foods (J.E Cecil, R. Tavendale, P. Watt, M. M. Hetherington, & C.N.A Palmer, 2008), have reduced feeling of satiety (J. Wardle, S. Carnell, C.M.A. Haworth, I.S. Farooqi, S. O’Rahilly, & R. Plomin, 2008), display loss of control over eating (M. Tanofsky-Kraff, J.C. Han, K. Anandalingam et al. 2009), consume more fat and calories (even after adjusting for BMI) (N. J. Timpson, P.M. Emmett, T.M. Frayling, et al. 2008) and display a greater tendency towards consuming palatable foods after eating a meal (J. Wardle, C.Llewellyn, S. Sanderson, & R. Plomin, 2009). Therefore, FTO isn’t associated with energy expenditure, but it increases the susceptibility of individuals to higher calorie consumption and decreased satisfaction. A meta- analysis of 45 studies found that adults who were physically active attenuate the odds of obesity associated with FTO by almost 30% (T.O. Kilpelainen, L. Qi, S. Brage, et al. 2011). Thus carrying a gene for obesity does not necessarily predestine one to be obese (D. Meyre, K. Proulx, H. Kawagoe-Takaki et al. 2010), but rather increases the risk in the face of an obesogenic environment (Khung E. Rhee et al. 2012). Numerous studies in different ethnic groups suggest that the familial correlation in the total body fatness, expressed as body mass index, (BMI; kg/m2) from parent to offspring is about 0.2 and for sibling-sibling relationships about 0.25 (Bouchard C, Perusse L, Leblanc C, Tremblay A, Theriault G. 1988). As would be expected, studies of twins show a much higher concentration, particularly in monozygotic pairs (Susan A.J, 1997). However, these findings do not segregate the independent effects of genetic transmission and a shared environment (Susan A.J, 1997). Further studies of twins reared apart attribute 50-70% of the difference in BMI in later life to genetic factors (Stunkard A, Harris J, Pedersen N, McClearn G. 1990). Adoption studies, where an individual is compared both to their biological parent and their adopted parents, have also demonstrated the importance of genetic influences (Susan A.J, 1997). There is a strong relationship between the BMI of the adoptee and their biological parents across the entire range of fatness, but no relationship between the adoptee and their adoptive parents (Stunkard A, Sorensen T, Hanis C. et al. 1986). Studies of fat distribution have considered both the ratio of subcutaneous to total fat mass and the distribution of subcutaneous fat in the trunk relative to the limbs (Susan A.J, 1997). Data from the Quebec Family Study, suggest that the size of the internal fat stores are more strongly influenced by genetic factors than subcutaneous depots (Bouchard C., Perusse L., Leblanc C., Tremblay A, Theriault, 1988). Familial clustering suggests that genetic factors may account for 37% of the variance in the trunk to extremity skin fold thickness ratio (Rice T, Bouchard C, Perusse L, Rao D. 1995). These combined evidence from these genetic analysis suggests that obesity is a polygenic disorder and that a considerable proportion of the variance is non-additive (Susan A.J, 1997). This would explain the higher correlations between siblings than those between parent and offspring, and the 2-fold greater correlation between monozygotic than dizygotic twins (Susan A.J, 1997). These genetic influences seem to operate through susceptible genes; the occurrence of the gene increases the risk of developing a characteristic but not essential for its expression nor is it, in itself, sufficient to explain the development of the disease (Susan A.J, 1997). Unlike animal models, where a number of single genes can lead to obesity, no human obesity gene has yet been characterized, but the heterogeneous nature of human obesity does not preclude the identification of small number of individuals with a single defect which leads to obesity (Susan A.J, 1997). In man, a number of genetically determined conditions result in excess body weight or fatness (e.g Prader-Willi syndrome or Bardet-Biedl syndrome), but these account for only a very small proportion of the obese population (Susan A.J, 1997). PHYSIOLOGICAL MEDIATORS Energy expenditure Studies in animals have postulated that at the time of overfeeding, a remarkable increase in metabolic rate may deplete the excess energy thus reducing the rate of weight gain below theoretical values (Rothwell N., Stock M., 1983). Genetically obese animals tend to gain more weight than their lean controls even when they are pair-fed, thus implying a greater metabolic rate (Thurby P., Trayhurn P., 1979). One possible explanation for this effect is the decrease in diet-induced thermogenesis which is lessened in animal models of obesity due to a decrease in the sympathetic activation of brown adipose tissue (Rothwell N., Stock M., 1983). These unequivocal effects on energy expenditure in obese animals contrast with the paucity of evidence in humans (Susan A Jebb, 1997). Susan A.J (1997) stated that in obese humans, there have been constant reports of abnormally low energy intake which indirectly imply that there must be a defect in energy expenditure. There are three basic elements to energy expenditure which have each been the focus of extensive research. Basal Metabolic Rate In 1997, Susan A Jebb defined basal or resting metabolic rate as the energy expended by an individual at rest, following an overnight fast and at a comfortable environmental temperature in the thermo neutral range. Several studies of basal metabolic rate have concluded that obese subjects have a higher BMR compared to their lean counterparts. Researchers like Swinburn B. & Ravussin E, reported that approximately 80% of the inter- individual variance in BMR can be accounted for by age, fat-free mass, fat mass and gender. Nevertheless, this still gives room for some likelihood that inter-individual difference in BMR which may influence individuals with a relatively low BMR to become obese (Susan A. Jebb, 1997). Diet induced thermogenesis A number of studies have suggested that the post-prandial increase in energy expenditure is attenuated in obese subjects, perhaps due to decreased Sympathetic Nervous System activity (Astrup A. 1996). Similar effects have also been demonstrated in the post-obese. However this is not a consistent finding, even among studies from the same laboratory. A recent review by Ravussin E. & Swinburn B. (1993) identified 28 studies in favour of a defect in thermogenesis in humans and 17 against. However, since thermogenesis accounts for only a fraction of total energy expenditure (approximately 10%), the potential for a significant effect on total energy expenditure is insufficient (Susan A. Jebb 1997). Physical activity The most significant component of energy expenditure is physical activity which may represent 20-50% of total energy expenditure. Studies of fidgeting movements in Pima Indians within a whole-body calorimeter have shown significant inter-individual variations in the daily energy cost of these actions from 400-3000 kJ/day, with low levels predictive of subsequent weight gain at least in males but not females (Zurlo F., Ferraro R., Fontvielle A. et. al. 1988). However, in free-living conditions, the freedom to undertake conscious physical activity or exercise increases the inter-individual variability even further (Susan A Jebb). Research in this area has been hampered by imprecision in the methods to measure physical activities which have included various actometers, heart rate monitoring, activity diaries and direct observation (Susan A. Jebb, 1997). The energy requirements of an individual encompass the summation of basal expenditure, thermogenesis and physical activity. A whole-body calorimeter can be used to measure the total energy expenditure of an individual. The analysis of total energy expenditure in 319 obese subjects clearly demonstrates a significant increase in energy expenditure with increasing body weight such that individuals with a BMI in excess of 35 kg/m2 have energy expenditure approximately 30% higher than those with BMI less than 25 kg/m2 (Susan A Jebb, 1997). The outstanding difficulty with these studies , as stated by Susan A. Jebb in 1997 is that the increase in energy expenditure seen in obese subjects as a result of their increased body size may mask pre-existing metabolic defects in the pre-obese state which exposes the individual to excessive weight gain. However, in experimental overfeeding researches, there is no remarkable difference in the degree of weight gain between lean and obese subjects when matched for their excess energy intake (Diaz E. Prentice A. M et. al. 1992).   Studies of total energy expenditure in post-obese subjects have not arrived at a definite conclusion; some studies show no difference in energy expenditure in the post-obese relative to never-obese controls (Goldberg G.R., et. al. 1991), whilst others show a modest suppression of energy expenditure (Geissler C. Miller D., Shah M. 1987). In general, there is little evidence to support the hypothesis that human obesity may be due to a specific defect in energy expenditure in predisposed individuals (Susan A Jebb, 1997). Susan A Jebb further stated that advocates of a metabolic basis to obesity, argue that only very small differences in energy expenditure are neccessary to produce significant weight gain over many years, and this difference may be lower than the limits of precision of even the most advanced methodology. Energy Intake The failure to identify a defect in the metabolic control of energy expenditure and the contrary observation of high levels of energy expenditure, and the contrary observation of high levels of energy expenditure in obese subjects has led to a focus on food intake to explain the aetiology of obesity (Susan A Jebb, 1997). The increase in energy expenditure associated with the development of obesity should automatically help to prevent continued weight gain; hence the failure of this auto-regulatory system suggests that there must be a considerable error in the regulation of food intake (Susan A Jebb, 1997). Furthermore, habitually lean individuals are able to regulate intake to match energy requirements over a wide range of energy requirements yet those who become obese seem unable to achieve this balance (Susan A Jebb, 1997).   Breakthrough in discerning the role of energy intake in the aetiology of obesity has been critically disconcerted by under-reporting which is now largely recognized as a feature of obesity (Susan A Jebb, 1997). Comparisons of energy intake and energy expenditure indicate consistent shortfalls in self-reported intake, averaging approximately 30% of energy requirements in obese subjects (Prentice A.M., Black A.E., Coward W.A., 1986; Lichtman S., Pisarska K., Berman E., et al., 1993). This phenomenon also extends to post-obese subjects and to others who may be very weight conscious (Susan A Jebb, 1997). Under-reporting may be cause by several factors and it is natural for individuals to change their eating pattern when they are to record their food intake.   This is usually associated with a reduction in intake as subjects consciously or sub-consciously adopt a self-imposed ‘diet’. (Susan A Jebb, 1997). Therefore they might give accurate results about their intake for that duration, but it may not be a true representation of their habitual pattern. Forgetfulness, underestimation of meal size and lack of basic knowledge of food consumption can also lead to under-reporting. Although, it is possible to have falsification and fabrication of dietary records, there are also instances of self-deception or deliberate manipulation of dietary records. Recent research into the appetite control system by Blundell J.; Bouchard C., Bray G. (1996), has identified a network of synchronous interactions which govern eating behavior. These effects are mediated through the central nervous system particularly the hypothalamus, where a number of neuropeptides appear to regulate feeding behavior via effects on hunger and satiety (Susan A Jebb, 1997). Laboratory studies of feeding behavior by Spiegel T., et al., in 1989, proposed that, following a convert energy preload, obese subject may be less able to accurately compensate for the energy content of the preload at a subsequent meal than lean subjects. However, these studies are usually of short duration in laboratory settings and may not accurately reflect eating behavior in a naturalistic setting, where knowledge of foods consumed and conditioned learning may invoke other regulatory processes (Susan A Jebb, 1997). There is also significant evidence that the individual macronutrients (protein, fat, carbohydrate and alcohol) have different influences on eating behavior, majorly due to their effects on satiety (Stubbs R., 1995). Experimental studies of manipulated foods and retrospective analyses of dietary records suggest that protein is the most satiating (DeCastro J., 1987; Hill A., Blundell J., 1990). Carbohydrate is also an efficient inhibitor of later food consumption, at least in the short terms, meal-to-meal context (Rolls B., et al. 1994). Fat seems to have a satiating capacity (Lawton C., Burley V., 1993). Fat hyperphagia occurs during a single meal due to subjects overeating high fat foods and is also known as passive over consumption. In 1994, Poppitt S., stated that fat has two times the energy per gram of carbohydrate or protein which may be due to the level of energy density and not necessarily a characteristic of dietary fat. Appetite is said to be stimulated by alcohol and according to DeCastro J & Orozco (1990), in free living circumstances, alcohol consumption with meals is associated with higher energy intakes, but this may also reflect that alcohol is more likely to be consumed on special occasions which in themselves are associated with increased food intake. Basically, taste preference can have an effect on the amount of food consumed and the kind of food.   The individual preference for certain meals would make them more likely to consume more of that meal. Therefore, sensory preferences plays a role on energy balance since is it associated with energy intake. According to Witherley S, Pangborn R & Stern J (1980), several reports of sensory preferences for particular food groups in association with obesity, but inter-subject variability is so great as to obscure any underlying obese-lean differences. The relationship between sensory preference for fat versus sugar and BMI was pinpointed by Drewnowski in 1992. Obese women had preference for foods with high fat to sugar ratio while women with low BMI had preference for high sugar to fat ratio, therefore increase in weight is closely related to increase for fatty foods. Eating frequency has effect on weight gain, because people who eat several small meals at intervals have less weight than those that eat fewer meals in larger quantity and therefore large quantity of food consumed at a time may be a risk factor for obesity, however, studies as regards this, showed no remarkable relationship (Bellisle F, McDevitt R, Prentice A.M. 1997). Research in this area is contradicted by under-reporting of food consumption in obese subjects and by post-hoc variations in eating patterns as a result of obesity and efforts to control weight (Susan A Jebb, 1997). Eating frequency in obese subjects is however an unreliable blueprint to the eating patterns involved in the aetiology of obesity (Susan A Jebb, 1997). ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCE Obesogenic environment which was first coined in the 1990s, in a bid to explain the present obesity epidermic. According to King D (2007), obesogenic environment is the sum of the influences that the surroundings, opportunities or conditions of life have on promoting obesity in individuals and populations. This encompasses the cultural, social and infrastructural conditions that affect the ability of a person to embrace a healthy lifestyle. Individuals in a population respond to unhealthy environment and the more urbanized the environment, the more individuals are pressurized to adopt unhealthy habits. The pressure from the surrounding makes it difficult for individuals to change their lifestyle and practice healthy habits when the environment itself is unhealthy. Environmental factors may have a critical effect in the development of obesity by unmasking genetic or metabolic susceptibilities (Susan A.J, 1997). Environmental influences on diet involve a wide range of factors including accessibility to food and high calorie drinks. Eating habits are commonly influenced by the availability and accessibility of unhealthy food, which is an important consideration in the effect on obesity. Studies in the United States recommend that the availability of high quality, affordable ‘healthy’ food is limited for people who reside in low-income communities and such scarcity is associated with unhealthy diet and obesity (White 2007) .However despite several epidemiological studies that shows environmental influences play an important role in the aetiology of obesity, it is a fact that some people within the same ‘unhealthy environment’ still managed to maintain a healthy weight (Susan A.J, 1997). PSYCHO-SOCIAL INFLUENCES Food is sometimes used as a coping mechanism by individuals with weight issues, especially when they are unhappy, nervous, stressed, bored and depressed. In many obese individuals there seems to be a perpetual cycle of mood disturbance, overeating, and weight gain (Jennifer C. Collins & Jon E. Bentz 2009). When they feel frustrated, they rely on food for comfort, even though this coping mechanism may pacify their mood, the resultant weight gain that results may cause a dysphoric mood due to their inability to control their stress (Jennifer C. Collins & Jon E. Bentz, 2009). Eventually a guilty feeling may restart the cycle and might steer a habitual pattern of eating food to get comfort. This habitual pattern is specifically significant if there is a genetic risk factor for obesity or an ‘obesogenic’ environment where foods high in calorie & density are readily accessible and sedentary lifestyle is present. Regrettably, these situations are popular in America. In addition to depression and anxiety, other risk factors include problematic eating behaviors such as â€Å"mindless eating,† frequent snacking on high calories foods, overeating, and night eating (Glinski J., Wetzler S., Goodman E.2001). American Psychiatric Association has currently included Binge eating disorder (BED) in an appendix of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV-TR) and is characterized by: recurrent episodes of eating during a discrete period of time (at least 2 days a week over a 6 month period); eating large quantity of food than majority of the people would eat at the same time; a feeling of loss of control during the episodes; and guilt or distress following the episodes (Jennifer C. Collins & Jon E. Bentz, 2009). According to Wadden T.A., Sarwer D. B., Fabricatore A. N., Jones L., Stack R., & Williams N.S (2007), BED is estimated to occur in approximately 2% of the general population and between 10% and 25% of the bariatric population. An important differentiation pointed out by the American Psychiatric Association, between BED and bulimia/anorexia is that BED is not associated with any regular compensatory behaviors, such as purging, fasting, or excessive exercise. It can therefore be implied that the majority of individuals with BED are overweight. Night eating, which was first identified in 1955 as another disorder that can lead to remarkable weight gain, though night eating syndrome (NES) is not currently recognized by the American Psychiatric Association as a distinct diagnosis in the DSM-IV-TR. Night eating syndrome is characterized by excessive late night consumption (> 35% of daily calories after the evening meal), unhealthy eating patterns, â€Å"morning anorexia,† insomnia, and distress (Stunkard A. J., Grace W. J. & Wolff H. G. 1955). NES occurs in approximately 1% of the general population and an estimated 5-20% of the bariatric population (Wadden T.A., Sarwer D. B., Fabricatore A. N., Jones L., Stack R., & Williams N.S. 2007). More recently, NES has been seen as a disorder of circadian rhythm that includes a delay of appetite in the mornings and the continuation of appetite and over consumption of food during the night (Jennifer C. Collins & Jon E. Bentz, 2009). PATHOPHYSIOLOGY OF OBESITY There are several possible pathophysiological mechanisms involved in the advancement and prolongation of obesity. This field of research had been almost unapproached until the leptin gene was discovered in 1994 by J. M. Friedman’s laboratory (Zhang, Y., Proenca, R., Maffei, M., Barone, M., Leopold, L., Friedman, J.M., 1994). These researchers proposed that leptin was a satiety element. However, soon after J. F. Caro’s laboratory could not ascertain any mutations in the leptin gene in humans with obesity. In 1995, Considine, RV; Considine, EL; Williams, CJ; Nyce, MR; Magosin, SA; Bauer, TL; Rosato, EL; Colberg, J., & Caro, J.F. proposed a contrary view that Leptin expression was increased, postulating the possibility of Leptin-resistance in human obesity. Since the discovery of leptin, insulin, ghrelin, orexin, cholecystokinin, adipokines, peptide tyrosine tyrosine, as well as many other mediators have been researched. The adipokines are intermediators produced by adipose tissue; their action is thought to revise many obesity-related diseases. Leptin and ghrelin are considered to be interrelated in their effect on appetite, with ghrelin produced by the stomach regulating short-term appetitive control (i.e. hunger pangs when the stomach is empty and satiety when the stomach is stretched). Leptin is created by adipose tissue to signal fat storage reservoirs in the body, and mediates long-term appetitive controls (i.e. to eat more when fat storages are low and less when fat storages are high). Although administration of leptin may be effective in a small subset of obese humans who have deficiency in leptin, most obese humans are considered to be leptin resistant and have been found to have high levels of leptin (Hamann A., & Matthaei S. 1996). This resistance is thought to explain in part why administration of leptin has not been shown to be effective in suppressing appetite in most obese people (Flier J.S. 2004). Leptin and ghrelin act on the hypothalamus and are produced peripherally. They control appetite through their actions on the central nervous system. They act on the hypothalamus, a region of the brain central to the coordination of food consumption and energy expenditure. There are several circuits within the hypothalamus that contribute to its performance in integrating appetite, the melanocortin pathway being the most well understood (Flier J.S. 2004). The circuit starts with an region of the hypothalamus, the arcuate nucleus, that has outputs to the lateral hypothalamus (LH) and ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH), the brains feeding and satiety centers, respectively (Boulpaep, Emile L., Boron, & Walter F. 2003). According to Flier J.S. (2004), the arcuate nucleus contains two distinct groups of neurons; the first group co expresses neuropeptide Y (NPY) and agouti-related peptide (AgRP) and has stimulatory inputs to the LH and inhibitory inputs to the VMH and the second group coexpresses pro-opiomelanocortin (POMC) and cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript (CART) and has stimulatory inputs to the VMH and inhibitory inputs to the LH (Flier J.S. 2004). Consequently, NPY/AgRP neurons stimulate feeding and inhibit satiety, while POMC/CART neurons stimulate satiety and inhibit feeding (Flier J.S. 2004). Both groups of arcuate nucleus neurons are regulated in part by leptin. Leptin inhibits the NPY/AgRP group while stimulating the POMC/CART group (Flier J.S. 2004).   Researches done by Flier J.S., 2004, thus concluded that a deficiency in leptin signaling, either via leptin deficiency or leptin resistance, leads to overfeeding and may account for some genetic and acquired forms of obesity. EFFECT ON HEALTH Obesity is a severe medical condition and a chronic health issue worldwide. The association between body weight and mortality is a subject of concern, especially in regards to the optimal weight for longevity (JoAnn E. Manson, M.D., Walter C. Willett, M.D., et al, 1995). The significance of understanding the true relationship between weight and mortality is underlined by the increasing prevalence of obesity in the United States (Kuczmarski RJ, et al, 1994) especially women (Harlen WR, et al, 1988). Obesity is a major risk factor for cardiovascular diseases (e.g., heart disease, stroke and high blood pressure), diabetes (e.g. type 2 diabetes), musculoskeletal disorders (e.g., osteoarthritis), some cancers (e.g., endometrial, breast, and colon cancer), high total cholesterol or high levels of triglycerides, liver and gallbladder diseases, sleep apnea and respiratory problems, reproductive health complications such as infertility and mental health conditions (WHO, 2012). Obesity and Cancer Obese people are more vulnerable to cancer and their prognosis is extremely worse when diagnosed. Men that are obese are 33% more likely to die from cancer and obese women also have a 50% higher likelihood of dying from breast cancer (Weight Management Centre, 2010). Additional to obesity, cancer has recently been linked to diet and physical activity status (Bray 2004, Barnard 2004, Wiseman 2008). The cancers most significantly associated with obesity in women are cervical, uterine, kidney, breast and endometrial cancer and in men are colon, pancreatic and liver cancer (Calle, Rodriguez, Walker-Thurmond & Thun 2003). One study, using National Cancer Institute Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results data, estimated that in 2007 in the United States, about 34,000 new cases of cancer in men (4 percent) and 50,500 in women (7 percent) were due to obesity. The percentage of cases attributed to obesity varied widely for different cancer types but was as high as 40 percent for some cancers, particularly endometrial cancer and esophageal adenocarcinoma (National Cancer Institute, 2012). Obesity and cardiovascular disorders Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is one of the major cause of death in U.S. Obese people are more liable to die from CVD largely due to accelerated atherosclerosis, hyperlipidaemia, loss of glyceamic control and hypertension. Until recently the relationship between obesity and coronary heart disease was viewed as indirect, i.e., through covariates related to both obesity and coronary heart disease risk (Lew E.A., Garfinkel L., 1979) including hypertension; dyslipidemia, particularly reductions in HDL cholesterol; and impaired glucose tolerance or non–insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. Insulin resistance and accompanying hyperinsulinemia are typically associated with these comorbidities (Reaven G.M., 1988). Although most of the comorbidities linking obesity to coronary artery disease increase as BMI increases, they also relate to the total distribution of body fat. Long-term longitudinal studies, however, indicate that obesity as such not only relates to but independently predicts coronary atherosclerosis (Manson J.E., et al., 1995; Garrison R. J., et al. 1985; Rabkin S.W., 1977). Messerli F. H. (1982) stated that left ventricular hypertrophy is mostly seen in patients with obesity and is related to systemic hypertension and may be related to the severity of obesity. Hypertension is approximately three times more commonly found in obese individuals than normal-weight persons (Van Itallie T.B., 1985). This relationship may be directly related such that when weight increases, there is an increase in blood pressure (Kannel W.B., Brand N., et al., 1967) and when weight decreases, blood pressure also decreases (Reisin E., Frohlich E.D., et al., 1983). Obesity and mental health Individuals diagnosed with obesity tend to be less favorable on all levels of the psychological assessment and may exhibit several symptoms ranging from mere sadness to chronic depression. Evident are more episodes of mood swings, anxiety, personality and eating disorders, basically related to or associated with obesity experienced by individuals with obesity (Pickering, Grant, Chou, Compton 2007). Obesity may be an inception of psychiatric manifestations and vice versa and is related to psychosocial deterioration and bias based on weight. This comprises of loss of self-worth, and reduced self-esteem associated with stigmatization. Stigmatization can further lead to desolation and withdrawal and thus many obese individuals seek solace in binge eating, thereby gaining more weight. Based on reports from Roberts, Deleger, Strawbridge & Kaplan 2003; Herva, Laitinen, Miettunen, Veijola, Karvonen & Lasky 2006; Kasen, Cohen, Chen &Must 2008, concern, shame and guilt associated with low self-worth, which is finally related to excessive food consumption completes the obesity-mental disorder circle. There is bias and discrimination associated with obesity. They generally report reduced quality of life and functional wellbeing, collectively called Health-related quality of life (HRQOL) (Puhl & Brownell 2001; Wadden & Phelan 2002). This relationships is majorly expressed by women (Fontaine 2001) and for people with severe obesity (Hudson, Hiripi, Pope & Kessler 2007; Scott, Bruffaerts, Siomn, Alonso, Angermeyer, de Girolamo et al. 2008). Obesity and diabetes Diabetes is usually a terminal illness. i.e. it is a lifelong chronic disease characterized by high levels of sugar in the blood. One of the major risk factors for diabetes is obesity. Obesity is directly associated with Diabetes 2. The association between obesity and type 2 diabetes are firmly established and without the intervention of a healthy diet and proper exercise, obesity can lead to type 2 diabetes over a very short period of time.   In fact, obesity is believed to account for 80-85% of the risk of developing type 2 diabetes, while recent research suggests that obese people are up to 80 times more likely to develop type 2 diabetes than those with a BMI of less than 22 (National Health Service, 2014). It is a known fact that obesity carries a greater risk of developing type 2 diabetes, especially if you have excess weight around your abdomen. Studies postulates that abdominal fat causes fat cells to releases ‘pro-inflammatory’ chemicals, which can reduce the body’s sensitivity to the insulin, this can also disrupt the function of insulin responsive cells and their ability to react to insulin. This is known as insulin resistance   which is a primary activator for type 2 diabetes. Excess abdominal fat is a major high-risk form of obesity. SOCIO-ECOMOMIC/ FINANCIAL COST OF OBESITY In 1999-2000, nearly 65 percent of U.S. adults were either obese or overweight. Obesity accounts for $117 billion a year in direct and indirect economic costs. Obesity is associated with 300,000 deaths per year, and is fast becoming the leading cause of preventable deaths† (Mancino, Lin, and Ballenger, 2004). Certainly, obesity has become a large problem in America. Recent increase in meal portions and reduction in availability of natural food production may propose why people find it challenging to maintain a healthy diet. Although, certain People have been successful at maintaining a healthy nutritional status and avoiding this unhealthy situation. Gary Becker’s human capital theory is a groundwork that helps to clarify the effect of weight status on the economy in terms of the labor market outcomes for the individual. Human capital is the educational qualification, job experience/training, and the health condition that workers devote their time in to boost their capacity and skills to be â€Å"rented out† to employers (Ehrenberg and Smith, 2005). Healthy weight status in relation to labour is a type of human capital investment. According to Robert Pindyck and Daniel Rubinfeld (2004), â€Å"When an investment decision is made, the investor commits to a current outlay of expenses in return for a   stream of expected future benefits.† These stated costs for a healthy weight may include buying of food with high nutritional values and creating time for physical activities. As an investment, the individual sacrifices money, time and other resources to attain a healthy weight to become more productive in the future and, hence, earn higher income. Obese workers miss more days of work and inflict more cost on employers especially in medical and disability claims and also workers compensation claims. As a result, firms end up with extra costs associated with obesity, this is one of the economic effects of obesity. Obesity places significant burden on the society through health care expenditures and disability payments combined through group health insurance and public programs. The estimated annual medical cost of obesity in the U.S. was $147 billion in 2008 U.S. dollars; the medical costs for people who are obese were $1,429 higher than those of normal weight (CDC, 2011). Obesity there has direct and indirect effect on the Nation’s resources, as more money is spent on the obese due to the high risk of comorbidity with other life threatening diseases like type 2 diabetes, osteoarthritis and cardiovascular diseases. TREATMENT There are several weight-loss schemes available but many are ineffectual and short-term, especially for those who are morbidly obese. The strategies for weight loss with non-surgical programs usually involve a combination of diet modification, behavior modification therapy and appropriate exercise. Dietary Modification Dietary modifications for obesity are designed to create a negative energy intake-energy expenditure balance (i.e., calories consumed < calories expended) by reducing daily energy intake below the required level. The required energy varies by weight, sex and level of physical exercise such individuals with higher weights, more activity have greater energy needs, including men (Melanson K. & Dwyer J. 2002). Uniformly, higher energy deficits results in higher weight losses. Low calorie diet is recommended for obese individuals and they are advised to check calorie content of meals before consumption. Very low calorie diet is recommended for morbidly obese individuals with little or no success in low diet consumption. Behaviour Therapy The oldest report of the use of behavioral therapy in the management of obesity occurred in 1967. Since then, it has been widely used in the management of obesity (Gupta R. & Misra A. 2007). Behavior therapy involves setting out goals and principles to patients to aid their adherence to the diet modification and activity goals for weight loss. Conventional tactics include self-monitoring of food intake and exercise, reduced portion of meals and number of times of food intake, intellective restructuring, problem solving, and prevention of regression. The primary aim of behavior modification therapy is to change eating pattern and exercise practices to promote weight loss (CDC, 2011). Components of behavioral therapy Self-monitoring: This is one of the main elements of behavior therapy in obesity. Self-monitoring includes maintaining food dairies and activity logs (Guare J.C., et. Al., 1989).Stimulus Control: This is the second key element in behavior therapy. In this element, focus is placed on altering the environment that initiates eating and modifying it to help prevent overeating. Stimulus control includes proper purchase of food items, excluding energy-dense processed food and introducing more fruits and vegetables (Wing R.R., 2004) Slower eating: Reducing the speed of eating so as to allow signals for fullness come into play.Goal setting: Setting realistic goals for one’s self or setting goals for patients as appropriate (Bandura A. & Simon K.M., 1977). Behavioral contracting: Reinforcing of successful outcomes or rewarding good behaviors plays a key role (Volpp K. G., et. al., 2008).Education: Nutritional education is a necessary component of a successful behavior therapy for obesi ty. A structured meal plan in conjunction with consultation with a dietician will be helpful (Pedersen S. D., et. al., 2007).Social support: Behavioral modification is more sustainable in the long term when there is social support. Enhancing social support is essential for behavioral therapy (Avenell A. et. al., 2004). Physical activity Physical activity is the third component of non-surgical weight loss interventions and lifestyle modification. The advantages of physical activities include promoting negative energy balance by maximizing calorie expenditure, preserving fat-free part during weight loss, and improving cardiovascular fitness. Physical activity, however, is ineffective in weight loss in the absence of diet modification. The greatest benefit of physical activity is in facilitating the maintenance of weight loss (Pronk N.P & Wing R.R. 1992). Case studies have shown that people who exercise regularly are more successful in maintaining weight losses than are those who do not exercise. Kayman S., Bruvold W., Stern J.S. 1990; Klem M.L., Wing R.R., McGuire M.T., Seagle H.M., Hill J.O.1997). Additional evidence comes from randomized trials. Participants who receive diet plus exercise maintain greater weight losses 1 year after treatment than do those who receive diet alone, although the differences are not always statistically significant (Wing, R.R. 1999). PREVENTION Obesity is a long-lasting medical condition, which is linked with several debilitating and life-threatening conditions. The increasing rate of obesity globally is a public health concern (Srinivas N., et. al., 2004). Hence an effective way to control obesity requires strategies that would tackle the major issues relating to prevention (Srinivas N., et. al., 2004). The treatment and prevention of obesity are interrelated. The prevention of obesity involves several levels i) Primary ii) Secondary iii) Tertiary (Timothy P.G., 1997). Primary prevention: The goal of primary prevention is to reduce the number of new cases. Diet modification/ healthy diet habits is a primary way of preventing obesity. Sedentary life style which is one of the causes of obesity can be prevented by appropriate exercises and activities that help burn out excess calories in the body and also prevent accumulation of fat. Simple habits ranging from 30 minutes walk in a day to weekly work out at the gymnasium can go a long way in maintaining a healthy weight. Health education is also very important in this aspect because some individuals in the community are unaware of the health implications of their habits. Appropriate health education programs should be organized to increase awareness. Accessibility to healthy food is also an important factor in the prevention of obesity. Formulations of policies that would facilitate healthy eating habit should be adopted by the Government; this would go a long way in reducing the economic effects of ob esity and the burden on the Nation’s resources. Policy and environmental approaches that make healthy choices available, affordable and easy can be used to extend the propagation of strategies designed to raise awareness and support people who would like to make healthy lifestyle changes (CDC, 2011).Secondary prevention: Secondary prevention is to lower the rate of established cases in the community (Srinivas N., et. al., 2004). Secondary prevention includes strategies to diagnose and treat an existing medical condition in its early stage to avoid complications. (Jeffery G.K., 2014). Tertiary prevention: Tertiary prevention is to stabilize or reduce the amount of disability related to obesity ((Srinivas N., et. al., 2004). For those who are already obese and showing signs and symptoms of complications, there are clinical preventive maintenance and treatment regimes (Srinivas N., et. al., 2004). These treatment includes medications and increase in fruit and vegetable consumpti on. Some extreme cases may include surgery and this is used usually when BMI exceeds 30kg/m2 or 40 kg/m2 and when other treatment options have failed. Examples of surgical procedures to treat obesity and its complications includes gastric partitioning and gastric by-pass (Srinivas N., et. al., 2004). REFERENCES Allison, B. D., Fontaine, R. K., Manson, E. J., & VanItallie, B. T. (1999). Annual deaths attributable to obesity in the United States. Journal of American Medical Association , 282 (16), 1530-8. Barness, A. L., Opitz, M. J., & Gilbert, E. (2007). Obesity: Genetic, molecular and environmental aspects. American Journal of Medical Genetics , 143 A (24), 3016-3034. Calle, E. E., Thun, J. M., Petrelli, M. J., Rodriguez, C., & Heath, W. C. (1999). Body mass index and mortality in a prospective cohort of U. S. adults. New England Journal of Medicine , 341 (15), 1097-105. Cawley, J., & Meyerhoefer, C. (2012). The medical care costs of obesity: An instrumental variables approach. Journal of Health Economics , 31 (1), 219-230. CDC.gov. (2011). National Diabetes Fact Sheet. Retrieved November 29, 2014, from Center for Disease Control and prevention http://www.cdc.gov/diabetes/pubs/pdf/ndfs_2011.pdf Flegal, M. K., Ogden, L. C., Wei, R., Kuczmarski, L. R., & Johnson, L. C. (2001). Prevalence of overweight in US children: Comparison of growth charts from the centre for disease control and prevention with other reference values for body mass index. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition , 73 (6), 1086-93. Glenny, A., & et, a. (1997). A systematic review of the interventions for the treatment of obesity and the maintenance of weight loss. International Journal of Obesity and Related Disorders . Gray, S. D., & Fujioka, K. (1991). Use of relative weight and body mass index for the determination of adiposity. Journal of Clinical Epidermiology , 44 (6), 545-550. Haslam, W. D., & James, P. W. (2005). Obesity. Lancet , 366 (9492), 1197-1209. Healthy weight: Assessing your weight; BMI: About BMI for children and teens. (2009, April). Retrieved April 2009, from Centre for Disease Control and Prevention. Miech, A. R., Kumanyika, K. S., & Stettler, N. (2004). Trends in the association of poverty with overweight among US adolescents. Journal of American Medical Association , 2385-2393. Mokdad, H. A., Marks, S. J., Stroup, F. D., & Gerberding, L. J. (2004). Actual causes of death in the United States, 2000. Journal of American Medical Association , 291 (10), 1238-45. Ogden, L. C., Flegal, M. K., Carroll, D. M., & Johnson, L. C. (2002). Prevalence and trends in overweight among US children and adolescents, 1999-2000. Journal of the American Medical Association , 288 (14), 1728-1732. Popkin, M. B., Adair, S. L., & Ng, W. S. (2012). Global nutrition transition and the pandemic of obesity in developing countries. Nutrition Reviews , 70 (1), 3-21. Sturm, R. (2007). Increases in morbid obesity in the USA: 2000-2005. Journal of Public Health , 121 (7), 492-6. Sweeting, N. H. (2007). Measurement and definitions of obesity in childhood and adolescence: Afield guide for the uninitiated. Nutritional Journal , 6 (1), 32.

European Trade Routes 1100-1500 Essay -- essays research papers

If there was ever an important period historians, and people could put a finger on, this would be it. This is the important period where the world’s countries, kingdoms, and dynasties established trade routes. This is the period where countries were made and countries were destroyed because of the importance of trade and the importance of building a fundamental, religious, and economical way of life. This paper will discuss the goals and functions of trades, and traders, and a historical analysis of world trade. This paper will also get into world trade patterns, of The Americas, Sub-Saharan Africa, The Indian Ocean, The Silk routes, China and The South China Sea, Europe and The Mediterranean, and The Atlantic Exploration.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The goals and functions of world trade today vary from when it started. Long distance trading today is a big part of everyday life for us. Most of our products, as you can see, come from China, Japan, Italy and other places across the ocean. Where would we be today if long distance trading wasn’t a part of everyday life? Asia and Europe play a huge part in our lives, and in what we eat, function with, and for children, play with. When long distance trading first started, it wasn’t as important as it is now. Traders mostly supplied goods for the rich who could afford these valuable goods, and afford the long distance accommodations. Supplies like gold, spices, silks, and others were sold to the rich and they were valued depending on weight and distance of the trade. A large part of the exchange economy was local, dealing with crops, and local manufactured products. The only problem with this was that it wasn’t pricey and it didn’t weigh much compared to long distance supplies, which made it difficult to make any profit whatsoever. Sometimes, to help out locals and the upper echelon, goods were traded for other goods instead of money. The most important part of trade was having a market to trade with. If there was no market, there was no business, and if there is no business there was no jobs, and money coming in for locals in that area. (The Worlds History, Spodek, 2001, Ch. 12)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Free market economy, which is still tremendously popular today, as it was when trade first started, is a big part of trade. Free market economy is when traders seek personal benefits by buying supplies an... ...acteriaceae. It is the infectious agent of bubonic plague, and can also cause pneumonic plague and septicemic plague.†(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pasteurella_pestis) In 1331 the infection entered China and began to spread, killing enormous amounts of people. This plague wiped out half of China since the Mongols passed through, and because this plague was so horrific, Mongol power weakened as a result of this. Europeans had no immunity toward new diseases, thus wiping out 1/3 of the population that swept across the continent. (The Worlds History, Spodek, 2001, Ch. 12)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  When you talk trade, and the foundations of powerful dynasties, you think China. When Marco Polo finally arrived in China in 1275, he described the ruler, Kublai Khan as the mightiest man. China was so advanced with riches, elements, and respect from underlings, that any of these could describe the comments Marco Polo had for Kublai Khan. Still, silk, porcelain, and tea, Chinas greatest products, attracted merchants from all around the world looking to trade.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  

Gothic Art :: essays research papers

Gothic Art began in 1137 with the rebuilding of the chair of the abbey church of St. Denis. Gothic Art is the style of art produced in Europe from the Middle Ages up to the beginning of the Renaissance. Typically religious in nature, is especially known for the distinctive arched design of its churches, its stained glass, and its illuminated manuscripts. Gothic, although symbolic, is a lot more anecdotal and naturalistic than Romanesque. In the late 14th century, anticipating the Renaissance, Gothic Art evolved towards a more secular style known as International Gothic. One of the best-known artists of this period is Simone Martini. Simone Martini was a Sienese painter who greatly influenced the development of the International Gothic style, and was a major figure in the development of early Italian painting. Giovanni Pisano was an Italian sculptor, as was his father Nicola Pisano. His work shows a mixture of French Gothic and the classical style. Among his works are: Pulpit for the Duomo di Siena, Sculptures and architectural design for the facade of the cathedral in Siena, Pulpit for the church of S. Andrea in Pistoia, The five reliefs on the pulpit are the Annunciation and Nativity, the Adoration, Dream of the Magi and Angel warning Joseph, the Massacre of the Innocents, the Crucifixion, and the Last Judgement, and the Pulpit for the Pisa Cathedral. The extraordinary painter Hieronymus Bosch stands apart from the prevailing Flemish traditions in painting. His style was unique, strikingly free, and his symbolism, unforgettably vivid, remains unparalleled to this day. Marvellous and terrifying, he expresses an intense pessimism and reflects the anxieties of his time, one of social and political upheaval The Gothic era in painting spanned more than 200 years, starting in Italy and spreading to the rest of Europe. Towards the end of this period, there were some artists in parts of the North who resisted Renaissance influences and kept to the Gothic tradition.